analisis laporan keuangan internasional

ANALISIS LAPORAN KEUANGAN INTERNASIONAL ANALISIS LAPORAN KEUANGAN INTERNASIONAL Diajikan guna melengkapi tugas softskill Nama kelompok : Afriyan Andryansyah Mario Jasper Barus Yudi Krisyanto Jurusan : AKUNTANSI Dosen : B.Sundari FAKULTAS EKONOMI UNIVERSITAS GUNADARMA JAKARTA 2012 BAB I Pendahuluan 1.1 Pendahuluan Investor, analisis riset ekuitas, manajer keuangan, bankir, dan para pengguna laporan keuangan lainnya memiliki kebutuhan yang semakin besar untuk membaca dan menganalis laporan keuangan. Terdapat pertumbuhan yang luar biasa dalam penerbitan dan perdagangan modal internasional pada tahun-tahun terakhir yang disebabkan oleh privasi, pertumbuhan ekonomi, pengenduran kontrol modal dan kemajuan dalam teknologi informasi yang terus menerus terjdi. Laporan keuangan asing juga meningkat karena kegiatan merger dan akuisisi telah semakin banyak terjadi secara internasional. Akhirnya, karena bisnis menjadi semakin global, laporan keuangan menjadi jauh lebih penting daripada masa sebelumnya karena menjadi dasar untuk analisis persaingan, keputusan kredit, negoisasi usaha, dan kontrol perusahaan. BAB II LANDASAN TEORI 2.2 PELUANG DAN TANTANGAN DALAM ANALISIS LINTAS BATAS Sejumlah negara memiliki perbedaan yang sangat besar dalam praktek akuntansi,kualitas pengungkapan, hukum, undang-undang, sifat, dan ruang lingkup risiko usaha, dan cara untuk menjalankan usaha. Analisis dan penilaian keuangan internasional ditandai dengan banyak kontradiksi. Di satu sisi, begitu cepatnya proses harmonisasi standar akuntansi telah mengarah pada semakin meningkatnya daya banding informasi keuangan diseluruh dunia. Terlepas dari kontradiksi yang msih terus berlanjut, hambatan untuk analisis dan penilaian keuangan internasional semakin menurun dan pandangan para analisis secara umum masih positif. 2.2 KERANGKA DASAR ANALISIS USAHA Kerangka dasar tersebut terdiri dari empat tahap analisis yaitu: 1. Analisis strategi usaha 2. Analisis akuntansi 3. Ananlisis keuangan 4. Analisis prospektif 2.2.1 ANALISIS STRATEGI USAHA INTERNASIONAL Analisis strategi usaha merupakan langkah penting pertama dalam analisis laporan keuangan. Dengan mengidentifikasi faktor pendorong laba dan risiko usaha yang utama,analis usaha mambantu para analisis untuk membuat peramalan yang realistis. Prosedur standar untuk untuk mengumpulkan informasi yang digunakan dalam ananlisis strategi usaha meliputi pemeriksaan laporan tahunan dan penerbitan perusahaan lainnya, dan berbicara dengan staff perusahaan, analisis dan profesional keuangan lainnya. 2.2.1.1 KETERSEDIAAN INFORMASI Analisis strategi usaha sulitdilakukan dibeberapa negara karena kurang andalnya informasi mengenai perkembangan makroekonomi. Memperoleh informasi mengenai industri juga sukar dilakukan di banyak negara dan jumlah serta kualitas informasi perusahaan sangat berbeda beda. Ketersediaan informasi khusus mengenai perusahaan sangat rendah di banyak negara berkembang. 2.2.1.2 REKOMENDASI UNTUK MELAKUKAN ANALISIS Keterbatasan data membuat upaya untuk melakukan analisis strategi usaha dengan menggunakan metode riset tradisonal menjadi sukar dilakukan. Sering kali , perlu dilakukan perjalanan untuk mempelajari sistem bisnis setempat dan bagaimana industri dan perusahaan sesungguhnya beroperasi, khususnya dinegara-negara pasar berkembang. Risiko yang sangat besar dapat terjadi karena ananlisis strategi usaha yang tidak memadai. 2.2.2 ANALISIS AKUNTANSI Tujuan analisis akuntansi adalah untuk menganalisis sejauh manahasil yang dilapoerkan perusahaan mencerminkankan realitas ekonomi. Untuk memperoleh kesimpulan yang dapat diandalkan, analisis harus menyesuaiakan jumlah akuntansi yang dilporkan untuk menghilangkan distorsi yang disebabkan oleh penggunaan metode akuntansi yang menurut analisis itu tidak layak. Healy dan rekannya menyarankan proses berikut ini dalam melakukan evaluasi kualitas akuntansi suatu perusahaan: 1. Identifikasikanlah kebijakan akuntansi utama 2. Analalisislah fleksibilitas akuntansi 3. Evaluasilah strategi akuntansi 4. Evaluasilah kualitas pengungkapan 5. Identifikasilah potensi terjadinya masalah 6. Buatlah penyesuaian atas distorsi akuntansi 2.2.2.1 SARAN-SARAN UNTUK PARA ANALIS Teristimewa pada saat melakukan analisis terhadap perusahaan dinegara pasar berkembang, para analisis harus sesering mungkin bertemu dengan manajemen untuk mengevaluasi insentif pelaporan keuangan dan kebijakan akuntansi mereka. Banyak perusahaan di pasar berkembangyang sangat tertutup dan para manajer mungkin tidak memiliki intensif yang kuat untuk melakukan pengungkapan yang lengkap dan kredibel. 2.2.3 ANALISIS KEUANGAN INTERNASIONAL Tujuan analisis keuangan adalah untuk mengevaluasi kinerja perusahaanpada masa kini dan masa lalu,dan untuk menilai apakah kinerjanya dapat dipertahannkan. Analisis rasio dan arus kas merupkan alat yang penting dalam melakukan analisis keuangan. Analisis rasio mencangkup perbandingan rasio antara suatu perusahaan dengan perusahaan lain dalam industri yang sama, antar waktu atau periode fiskal yang lain dan terhadap beberapa acuan yang baku. Analisis ini memberikan masukan terhadap derajat perbandingan dan relatif pentingnya pos-pos laporan keuangan dan dapat membantu dalam mengevaluasi efektivitas kebijakan operasi, investasi, pendanaan dan retensi laba yang dimbil manajemen. Analisis arus kas berfokus pada laporan arus kas, yang memberikan informasi mengenai arus kas masuk dan keluar perusahaan. 2.2.3.1 ANALISIS ARUS KAS Analisis arus kas memberikan masukan mengenai arus kas dan manajemen suatu perusahaan. Laporan arus kas yang sangat mendetail diwibkan menurut GAAP AS, GAAP Inggris, IFRS, dan standar akuntansi disejumlah negara yang jumlahnya semakin bertambah. Ukuran-ukuranyang berkaitan dengan arus kas sangat bermanfaat khususnya dalam analisis internasional karena tidak terlalu dipengaruhi oleh perbedaan prinsip akuntansi, bila dibandingkan dengan ukuran-ukuran berbasis laba. 2.2.3.2 MEKANISME UNTUK MENGATASINYA Beberapa analisis menyajikan ulang ukuran akuntansi asing menurut sekelompok prinsip yang diakui secara internasional, atau dasar lain secara umum, mengembangkan pemahaman yang lengkap atas praktik akuntansi disekolompok negara tertentu dan membatasi analisis mereka terhadap perusahaan yang berlokasi dinegara tersebut. 2.2.4 ANALISIS PROSPEKTIF INTERNASIONAL Analisis prospektif mencakup tahapan: peramalan dan penilaian. Ketika melakukan peramalan, para analisis membuat ramalan mengen perusahaan secara eksplisit berdasarkan strategi usaha, catatan akuntansi, dan analisis keuangan Ketika melakukan penilaian, analis mengubah ramalan kuantitatif menjadi suatu estimasi nilai perusahaan. Penilaian digunakan secara inplisit dalam banyak keputusan usaha. Sebagai contoh, penilaian merupakan dasar rekomendasi investasi yang diberikan leh analisis keuangan. Pakar dalam penilaian internasional memberikan peringatan berikut ini kepada merekan yang melakukan analisis rospektif internasional:” setiap aturan yang telah anda pelajari di negara asal anda menjadi tidak berlaku di luar negri.” Sebagai contoh, dengan analisis arus kas doiskonto seseorang menilai suaatu usaha berdasarkan nilai kini ekspektsi arus ka yang didiskontokan sesuai dengan tingkat suku bungan yang mencerninkan tingkat resiko aruskas tersebut. 2.3 AKSES INFORMASI Informasi mengenai ribuan perusahaan dari seluruh dunia telah tersedia secara luas dalam beberapa tahu terakhir.sumber informasi yang tak terhitung banyaknya munncul melalui World Wode Web. Benyaknya perusahaan juga menjawab permintaan atas laporan tahunan dokumen keuangan lainnya yang disampaikan secara tertulis atau melalui telpon. 2.4 KETEPATAN WAKTU INFORMASI Ketepatan wktu laporan keuangan, laporan tahunan, laporan kepada pihak regulator dan siaran ers yang menyangkut laporan akuntansi berbeda-beda di tiap negara. Perbedaan dalam ketepatan waktu informasi akuntansi menambah beban pera embaca laporan keuangan perusahaan asing. Beban ini semakin besar untuk perusahaan-perusahaaan yang memiliki lingkungan yang senantiasa beruban ubah. Agar penilaian yang dilakukan bermakna, diperlukan penyesuaian ters menerus atas jumlah yang dilaporkan, dengan menggunakan alat konvensional ataupun tidak kinvensional. 2.5 PERUBAHAN MATA UANG ASING Akun-akun yang berdeniminai dalam mata uang asing membuat para anali menghadapi dua jenis permasalahan. Yang berkaitan dengan kemudahan pembaca, yang kedua menyangkut isi informasi sebagian besar perusahaan di seluruh dunia menetapkan denominasi akun-akun keuangannya dalam mata uang domisili nasional mereka. Bagi seorang pembaca dari AS yang terbiasadengan dollar, analisis akun-akun yang dinyatakan dalam euro dapat menimbulkan kebingunagan. Jawaban yang umum untuk mengantasinya adalah dengan menetralasikan saldo-saldo dalam mata uang asing kedalam mata uang asing. 2.6 PERBEDAAN DALAM FORMAT LAPORAN Format neraca dan laporan laba rugi berbeda-beda di setiap negara. Sebagai contoh, berbeda dengan di Amerika Serikat di mana kebanyakan perusahaan menggunakan fomat neraca dengan aktifa di sisi kiri dan klaim atas ekuitas di sisi kanan, format sebaliknya digunakan di inggris. Contoh kedua, berbeda dengan neraca di AS yang menyajikan aktifa semakin menrun dalam urutan likuidasi dan kewajiban semakin meningkat dalam urutan tanggal jatuh tempo, di banyak negara aktifa yang paling likuid dan kewajiban dengan jangka waktu paling pendek diempatkan di bagian bawah neraca. 2.7 HAMBATAN DAHASA DAN TEKNOLOGI Perbedaan bahasa antar negara menimbulkan hambatan informasi bagi para pengguna laporan keuangan. Kebanyakan perusahaan yang berdomisili dinegara-negara yang tidak menggunakan bahasa inggris menerbitkan laporan tahunannya dalam bahasa negara asal. Namun demikian, semakin banyak perusahaan yang relatif besar yang berada di prekonomian maju menyediakan laporan tahunan dalambahasa inggris. Perbedaan terminilogi akuntansi juga dapat menimbulakan kesulitan. Sebagai contoh, para pembaca di AS mengartikan istilah stock sebagai surat berharga yang menunjukan kepemilikan perusahaan (saham). Di sisi lain, para pembaca di inggris mengartikan isilah itu sebagai persediaan barang yang belum terjualmilik perusahaan. Contoh lain perbedaan terminologi antara inggris dan amerika serikat antara lain turnover (pendapatan penjualan) dan debtors (account receivable) dan creditor (account payable). Secara singkat, banyak isi-isu substansial yang dihadapi para pengguna lapoan keuangan internasional. Mungkin isu yang paling sulit adalah yang berkaitan dengan mata uang asing dan ketersediaan dan kredibilitas informasi keuangan.

tugas , softskill B.INGGRIS

Mario Jasper Barus
3EB04
20208774


• Passive Voice :
Active : susi bough clothes yesterday
Form : S (susi) + V2 (bough) + O (clothes) + Adv. Of time (yesterday )
Passive : Yesterday, clothes bought by susi
Form : Adv. Of Time (Yesterday) + O ( clothes) + V3 (bought)+by) + S (susi)


Active : Anisa close to completing all challenge
Form : S (Anisa) + V2 (close) + O (to completing all challenge)
Passive : almost all tasks were completed by Anisa
Form : O (Almost all tasks) + to be (were) + V3(completed)+by) + S(Anisa)






ConditionalSentence

Future Possible :
• If I get a value of 100, I will buy 1 unit of car
• If I pass the exam, I will apply for the job

Present Unreal :
• If I have the gold bars, I will create a second national monument
• If I have two wives, I will be fair
Past Unreal :
• I'm not going to be late to school today, if I drove a vehicle that does not strike
• I will not be scolded faculty, if I obey the rules

surat claim

NOTICE LETTER
CLAIMS / BENEFITS INSURANCE POLICY HOLDERS TO CONTRACT OUT
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Previously, we thank you for the participation of Mr / Ms in the Insurance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..
... .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... On PT. Life Insurance Archipelago.
We are pleased to inform you that Mr. / Ms will get insurance benefits for Policy Mr / Mrs registration
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... at the end Than to ... ... .. Precisely at the date ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ie
registration ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...% Sum Assured.
Insurance benefits can be taken directly or transferred to the account of Mr / Ms, or can also be compensated
to the next premium payment or is stored in the PT. Life Insurance archipelago with interest at ... ... ... .... ... ..% pa
year, therefore we ask fulfilled the requirements as follows:
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Thus we submit, thank you for the trust given to us.
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
And for more details, Please do not hesitate to contact us on telephone number: ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... With the Br / I
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ...., And we're excited to help Mr. / Mrs.
Jakarta,
cut here ------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------
I have received letter of Insurance Benefits:
Policy Holder Name:
Policy Number:
Sum Insured:
After reading and considering the options given, I want Insurance Benefits:
Taken slim / transfer
Kept in PT. Life Insurance Nusantara
Compensated to the following premium
Which states,
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Knowing,
p, p y p y g
Policyholders
Claims Department

contoh surat undangan

Bandung, 15 August 2009

Number: A/032/RM/XII/2008
Annex: 1 Page
Subject: Drag Race Sound Permit.

Dear.
Parents / guardians protege House Music
in
Place

Assalam \ 'alaikum Wr.Wb
Sincerely,

All praise and gratitude we pray toward the presence of Allah who has given pleasure and the Islamic faith to us all, and do not forget we pray toward sholawat and greetings to the great prophet Muhammed, along with family, friends and his people until the end of time

In order to welcome the 64th independence day, which God willing will be held at the Field Gasibu AKBAR, and will directly diadaka Parlombaan Pull Sound and Poetry elementary and junior high level, therefore we as administrators House Music beg their parents / guardians of children didiik Houses Music gave permission for the event.

Similarly, we hereby request, we are looking forward to the participation of the son / daughter of father / mother / guardian and the consent of the father / mother / guardian, on participation, I thank you.

Music home

Tatang Somantri

contoh surat lamaran kerja

Subject: Job Application

to the honorable
Human Resources Manager
PT. Hand's Parmantindo
Jl. Bumi Raya Sentoda No. 5
Cibinong


Sincerely,

Bpk. Bambang Satrio, an assistant editor at PT. Hand's Parmantindo, inform me about the plan to develop the Ministry of Finance PT. Hand's Parmantindo.
In connection with this matter, let me ask myself (apply for a job) to join the development plan of PT. Hand's Parmantindo.

About myself, can I explain as follows:
Name
Place & date. born
End of Education
Address
Telephone, mobile, e-mail
Marital Status
: Florentina Princess
: Probolinggo, August 5, 1979
: Bachelor of Accounting University of Pancasila - Jakarta
: Perum Depok Bojong New 1, Block No.3 ZT, Cibinong 16,913
: 021-87903802, HP = 0817 9854 203, e-mail = putri.flo @ gmail.com
: Married.

Currently I am working at PT. Singo flamboyant Earth, as a staff accounting and taxation, with the main focus of work in the fields of finance and taxation.

For your consideration, I enclose:

1. Curriculum Vitae.
2. Photocopy of diploma S-1.
3. Photocopy of certificate courses / training.
4. Recent photograph.

I hope to be given a chance interview, and can explain more in depth about myself. As implied in the resume (curriculum vitae), I have the educational background, experience, potential and a hard worker.

So I have to say. Thank you for your attention.

Sincerely,

mario

join venture

Joint Venture is a separate unit which involves two or more active participants as partners. Sometimes also referred to as strategic alliances, which include a variety of partners, including nonprofit organizations, businesses and public sector. According to Peter Mahmud joint venture is a contract between two companies to form a new company, the new company is called joint venture. Meanwhile, according to Erman Rajagukguk understanding is a collaboration between the owners of foreign capital with the owner of the national capital under the agreement, so the sense is more skewed in the joint venture that is international. Both the sense that it has a joint venture agreement is an agreement, it must meet the legal conditions of the agreement under the provisions of Article 1320 Civil Code. But in a joint venture arrangement is outside the Civil Code, because joint ventures are included in the agreement that are not named and is not regulated in the Civil Code.
Based on the understanding of the two figures above, we can know the elements contained in the joint venture are:
a. cooperation between national and foreign capital owners
b. form a new company between foreign and national entrepreneurs
c. based on contractual or treaty
But not all enterprises must set up a joint venture between the owners of foreign capital with the owner of the national capital. Types of joint venture agreements, among others:
a. Domestic joint venture
Domestic joint venture established between companies located in the country.
b. International joint venture
International joint venture was established in Indonesia by the two companies where one of them foreign companies.
There are two (2) the specific nature of foreign investment, according to Robert Gilpin, namely:
a. Multi / trans-national (PMN / PTN) make direct investments in foreign countries (foreign direct investment, "FDI"), through the establishment of subsidiaries or branches of companies or takeover of a foreign company, with the goal of supervising the management of a production unit in a foreign country, which is different from investment fortofolio purchase shares in a company.
b. A PMN marked by a parent company and a group of subsidiary or branch companies in different countries with a single container along with the resources management, finance and engineering with vertical integration and sentralisai decision. Judging from the countries involved in PMN, then there are 2 (two) countries linked the country of origin of investment (home state) with the host country (host state) or state that is central to PMN (home country) with another country which is where companies conducts operations or kegiatanya (host country).
According to Erman Rajagukguk understanding of the above joint venture should have its foreign element, it is important we also review our understanding of foreign investment. Definition of foreign investment according to Article 1 of Law No. 1 / 1967 "The definition of foreign investment in this Act only covers direct foreign investment undertaken by or under the provisions of this Act and who used to run the company in Indonesia, in the sense of direct capital owners bear the risk of the investor. "In order to attract foreign investment to Indonesia in general involves three things: that there are opportunities in the economic, legal certainty and political stability. Basically, the joint venture company established on the existence of agreements between foreign and national investors. Sarna employment agreement contains rights and obligations of the parties. The position of the parties in the management determined based on the percentage ownership of company shares. Percentage of shares between foreign and national investors are usually not the same. In general, national investors are minority shareholders, while foreign investors are the majority. This causes the majority shareholders tend to master the management of joint venture companies.
As for the conditions to attract foreign capital are:
a. Terms of economic benefits (economic opportunity)
Namely the existence of economic opportunities for investors, such as close to natural resources, availability of raw materials, availability of locations to establish the plant, availability of labor and the prospective market.
b. Terms of Rule of Law (legal certainity)
Governments must be able to enforce the law and provide security guarantees. Application of regulations and policies, especially the consistency of law enforcement and security and improve the judicial and legal system is a very important requirement in order to attract investors.
c. Terms political stability (political stability)
Foreign investment in a country heavily influenced by the factor of political stability (political stability). The conflict between the political elite or in masyaratkat will affect the investment climate. In addition, not solid socio-political conditions have a significant influence on investment flows.
Capital investment to provide benefits to all parties, not only for investors but also for the economy of the country where capital is invested and for the country of origin of the investors. The government determines the areas of business that require capital investment by various regulations. In addition, the government also determines the amount of capital and the comparison between the national capital and foreign capital. This is done so that such investments can be directed to a goal to be achieved. Not the danger is often a country is unable to determine freely its economic policy, because of the influence and interference of foreign governments.
This is because due to limited capital, skills and technologies owned by our country, and the many countries that require the presence of foreign investors to invest in his country. The government can not just rely on tax revenues, results of oil and non-oil exports, domestic savings and foreign aid. If only rely on these sources, the Indonesian economic growth rate will not increase, for that's needed foreign investment. Indonesia needs foreign capital because:
a. To provide employment;
b. Implement import substitution to boost foreign exchange;
c. Encouraging export to earn foreign exchange;
d. Building lagging regions and infrastructure;
e. For industrialization or technology transfer.
Foreign investment is expected as one source of financing in the construction of infrastructure such as ports, telecommunications, air transportation, drinking water, electricity, clean water, roads, railroads. Foreign investment is needed to develop the technology and the improvement of science, therefore, required substantial funds.

market

The study of actual existing markets made up of persons interacting in space and place in diverse ways is widely seen as an antidote to abstract and all-encompassing concepts of “the market” and has historical precedent in the works of Fernand Braudel and Karl Polanyi. The latter term is now generally used in two ways. First, to denote the abstract mechanisms whereby supply and demand confront each other and deals are made. In its place, reference to markets reflects ordinary experience and the places, processes and institutions in which exchanges occurs.[2] Second, the market is often used to signify an integrated, all-encompassing and cohesive capitalist world economy. A widespread trend in economic history and sociology is skeptical of the idea that it is possible to develop a theory to capture an essence or unifying thread to markets.[3] For economic geographers, reference to regional, local, or commodity specific markets can serve to undermine assumptions of global integration, and highlight geographic variations in the structures, institutions, histories, path dependencies, forms of interaction and modes of self-understanding of agents in different spheres of market exchange.[4] Reference to actual markets can show capitalism not as a totalizing force or completely encompassing mode of economic activity, but rather as "a set of economic practices scattered over a landscape, rather than a systemic concentration of power".[5]
Wetherby town’s market.

C. B. Macpherson identifies an underlying model of the market underlying Anglo-American liberal-democratic political economy and philosophy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: Persons are cast as self-interested individuals, who enter into contractual relations with other such individuals, concerning the exchange of goods or personal capacities cast as commodities, with the motive of maximizing pecuniary interest. The state and its governance systems are cast as outside of this framework.[6] This model came to dominant economic thinking in the later nineteenth century, as economists such as Ricardo, Mill, Jevons, Walras and later neo-classical economics shifted from reference to geographically located marketplaces to an abstract "market".[7] This tradition is continued in contemporary neoliberalism, where the market is held up as optimal for wealth creation and human freedom, and the states’ role imagined as minimal, reduced to that of upholding and keeping stable property rights, contract, and money supply. This allowed for boilerplate economic and institutional restructuring under structural adjustment and post-Communist reconstruction.[8]

Similar formalism occurs in a wide variety of social democratic and Marxist discourses that situate political action as antagonistic to the market. In particular, commodification theorists such as Georg Lukács insist that market relations necessarily lead to undue exploitation of labour and so need to be opposed in toto.[9] Pierre Bourdieu has suggested the market model is becoming self-realizing, in virtue of its wide acceptance in national and international institutions through the 1990s.[10] The formalist conception faces a number of insuperable difficulties, concerning the putatively global scope of the market to cover the entire Earth, in terms of penetration of particular economies, and in terms of whether particular claims about the subjects (individuals with pecuniary interest), objects (commodities), and modes of exchange (transactions) apply to any actually existing markets.

A central theme of empirical analyses is the variation and proliferation of types of markets since the rise of capitalism and global scale economies. The Regulation School stresses the ways in which developed capitalist countries have implemented varying degrees and types of environmental, economic, and social regulation, taxation and public spending, fiscal policy and government provisioning of goods, all of which have transformed markets in uneven and geographical varied ways and created a variety of mixed economies. Drawing on concepts of institutional variance and path dependency, varieties of capitalism theorists (such as Hall and Soskice) identify two dominant modes of economic ordering in the developed capitalist countries, "coordinated market economies" such as Germany and Japan, and an Anglo-American "liberal market economies". However, such approaches imply that the Anglo-American liberal market economies in fact operate in a matter close to the abstract notion of "the market". While Anglo-American countries have seen increasing introduction of neo-liberal forms of economic ordering, this has not lead to simple convergence, but rather a variety of hybrid institutional orderings.[11] Rather, a variety of new markets have emerged, such as for carbon trading or rights to pollute. In some cases, such as emerging markets for water, different forms of privatization of different aspects of previously state run infrastructure have created hybrid private-public formations and graded degrees of commodification, commercialization and privatization.[12]

Problematic for market formalism is the relationship between formal capitalist economic processes and a variety of alternative forms, ranging from semi-feudal and peasant economies widely operative in many developing economies, to informal markets, barter systems, worker cooperatives, or illegal trades that occur in most developed countries. Practices of incorporation of non-Western peoples into global markets in the nineteenth and twentieth century did not merely result in the quashing of former social economic institutions. Rather, various modes of articulation arose between transformed and hybridized local traditions and social practices and the emergence world economy. So called capitalist markets in fact include and depend on a wide range of geographically situated economic practices that do not follow the market model. Economies are thus hybrids of market and non-market elements.[13]

Helpful here is J. K. Gibson-Graham’s complex topology of the diversity of contemporary market economies describing different types of transactions, labour, and economic agents. Transactions can occur in underground markets (such as for marijuana) or be artificially protected (such as for patents). They can cover the sale of public goods under privatization schemes to co-operative exchanges and occur under varying degrees of monopoly power and state regulation. Likewise, there are a wide variety of economic agents, which engage in different types of transactions on different terms: One cannot assume the practices of a religious kindergarten, multinational corporation, state enterprise, or community-based cooperative can be subsumed under the same logic of calculability (pp. 53–78). This emphasis on proliferation can also be contrasted with continuing scholarly attempts to show underlying cohesive and structural similarities to different markets.[14]

A prominent entry point for challenging the market model's applicability concerns exchange transactions and the homo economicus assumption of self-interest maximization. There are now a number of streams of economic sociological analysis of markets focusing on the role of the social in transactions, and the ways transactions involve social networks and relations of trust, cooperation and other bonds.[14] Economic geographers in turn draw attention to the ways in exchange transactions occur against the backdrop of institutional, social and geographic processes, including class relations, uneven development, and historically contingent path dependencies.[15] A useful schema is provided by Michel Callon's concept of framing: Each economic act or transaction occurs against, incorporates and also re-performs a geographically and cultural specific complex of social histories, institutional arrangements, rules and connections. These network relations are simultaneously bracketed, so that persons and transactions may be disentangled from thick social bonds. The character of calculability is imposed upon agents as they come to work in markets and are "formatted" as calculative agencies. Market exchanges contain a history of struggle and contestation that produced actors predisposed to exchange under certain sets of rules. As such market transactions can never be disembedded from social and geographic relations and there is no sense to talking of degrees of embeddedness and disembeddeness.[16]

An emerging theme worthy of further study is the interrelationship, interpenetrability and variations of concepts of persons, commodities, and modes of exchange under particular market formations. This is most pronounced in recent movement towards post-structuralist theorizing that draws on Foucault and Actor Network Theory and stress relational aspects of personhood, and dependence and integration into networks and practical systems. Commodity network approaches further both deconstruct and show alternatives to the market models concept of commodities. Here, both researchers and market actors are understood as reframing commodities in terms of processes and social and ecological relationships. Rather than a mere objectification of things traded, the complex network relationships of exchange in different markets calls on agents to alternatively deconstruct or “get with” the fetish of commodities.[17] Gibson-Graham thus read a variety of alternative markets, for fair trade and organic foods, or those using Local Exchange Trading Systems as not only contributing to proliferation, but also forging new modes of ethical exchange and economic subjectivities.

Most markets are regulated by state wide laws and regulations. While barter markets exist, most markets use currency or some other form of money.



sumber:wikipedia